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The Pax Mongolica (Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known as Pax TataricaMichael Prawdin. The Mongol Empire: its rise and legacy. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2006. p. 347. ("Tatar Peace"), is a Historiography term modeled after the original phrase Pax Romana which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce that the unified administration helped to create and the period of relative peace that followed the Mongols' vast and violent conquests.
The conquests of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) and his successors, spanning from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe, effectively took over the Eastern world with the Western world. The Silk Road, connecting trade centres across Asia and Europe, came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire. It was commonly said that "a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm".Charlton M. Lewis and W. Scott Morton. China: Its History and Culture (Fourth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Print. p.121Laurence Bergreen. Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu. New York: Vintage, 2007. Print. p.27–28 Despite the political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into four khanates (Yuan dynasty, Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate), nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century. The end of the Pax Mongolica was marked by the disintegration of the and the outbreak of the Black Death in Asia which spread along trade routes to much of the world in the mid-14th century.
During this time, Mongol elements including the ʼPhags-pa script made numerous appearances in Western art.
The new Mongol empire quickly moved to annex more territory. The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against the Western Xia.All Empires: Online History Community. "The Mongol Empire." Feb. 2007. Web. 22 November 2009 In 1209 the Mongols conquered the Western Xia. Between 1213 and 1214 the Mongols conquered the Jin Empire, and by 1214 the Mongols had captured most of the land north of the Yellow River. In 1221 Mongol generals Jebe and Subutai began their expedition around the Caspian Sea and into Kievan Rus'; Genghis Khan defeated Turkic Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu at the Battle of Indus; the Khwarezmian Empire were defeated that same year. In 1235 the Mongols successfully invaded Korea. Two years later in 1237 Batu Khan and Subodei began their conquest of Rus'; they invaded Poland and Hungary in 1241. In 1252 the Mongols began their invasion of Song China; they would seize the capital of Hangzhou in 1276. In 1258 Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad.
Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new people, especially foreign engineers and Laborer, into their society. Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and the opportunity to control and tribute. Thus, through territorial expansion, the Mongol Nation not only became an empire, but also became more Technology and Economics advanced.
Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across the Old World, particularly Eurasia. Thomas T. Allsen noted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period.Thomas T. Allsen - Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.6 There were many significant developments in economy (especially trade and public finance), military, medicine, agriculture, cuisine, astronomy, printing, geography, and historiography, which were not limited to Eurasia but also included North Africa.
On the Silk Road caravans with Chinese silk; Black pepper, ginger, cinnamon, and nutmeg came to the Western world from the Maluku Islands via the transcontinental trade routes. Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well.Michael Prawdin. The Mongol Empire: Its rise and legacy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2006. Print. p.350. Indian muslins, cottons, pearls, and precious stones were sold in Europe, as well as weapons, carpets, and leather goods from Iran. Gunpowder was also introduced to Europe from China. In the opposite direction, Europeans sent silver, fine cloth, horses, linen, and other goods to the near and far East. Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets, thus increasing the GDP of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system. Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size.Janet Abu-Lughod. Before European Hegemony: the world system a.d. 1250–1350. New York: OUP, 1989. Print. p.356–357
Along with land trade routes, a Maritime Silk Road contributed to the flow of goods and establishment of a Pax Mongolica. This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China. As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high-seas route into the Indian Ocean. Eventually these routes further developed encompassing the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and the sea off East Africa.Bira Shagdar. "The Mongol Empire in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: East-West Relations". The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. Vadime Elisseeff. Paris: Berghahn, 2000. 288–293. Print.
Along with tangible goods, people, techniques, information, and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time.Robert Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke. Power and Plenty: trade, war, and the world economy in the second millennium. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. Print. p.108 For example, John of Montecorvino, archbishop of Beijing founded Roman Catholic missions in India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language. Long-distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the far East to Europe; Banknote, deposit banking, and insurance were introduced to Europe during the Pax Mongolica.Robert Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke. Power and Plenty: trade, war, and the world economy in the second millennium. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. Print. p. 109. Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveller would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins.
methods of mathematics, astronomy, and science made their way to Africa, East Asia and Europe during the Pax Mongolica.John M. Hobson. The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2004. Print. p.181. Methods of paper-making and printing made their way from China to Europe. Rudimentary banking systems were established, and money changing and credit extension were common, resulting in large amounts of merchant wealth.William J. Bernstein. A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World. New York: Grove Press, 2008. Print. p.78–128
The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure the flow of trade through the empire. The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less-important or more inaccessible routes.Jack Weatherford. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p.118–119 The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen. This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances.George Lane. Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.31
The Mongols developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol- ortoq partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities.Enerelt Enkhbold, "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships," Central Asian Survey 38, no. 4 (2019): 531-547 Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Chinese and Marco Polo's family.Enkhbold op cit pp. 537
The code of Mongol law, known as the Yassa ("Great Law"), decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire's society, especially those areas concerning trade and commerce. The Yassa helped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war, thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment.Jack Weatherford. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p. 67. Theft and animal rustling were outlawed, and the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan even established a massive lost-and-found system.Jack Weatherford. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p.69 Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads.George Lane. "Daily Life in the Mongol Empire". Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print. p.216 The Yassa also decreed complete religious freedom, ensuring that Buddhism, Muslims, Christians, etc., were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation, as were doctors, lawyers, Funeral director, teachers, and scholars. The Yassa did allow for flexibility and it usually adapted, absorbed, or built upon legal systems in remote parts of the empire, thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability.George Lane. Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p. 36.Karen Armstrong. Islam: A Short History. New York: Modern Library, 2002. Print. p. 98.
In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced, a hierarchy of legal administration was developed. This was headed by the Secretarial Council "chung-shu-sheng" (中書省) of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as "hsing-sheng" (行省). The Xingsheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases. A police commissioner known as "hsien wei" (縣委) was entrusted with Yassa and had the authority to arrest suspects. This method of federalising the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent.George Lane. "Daily Life in the Mongol Empire". Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print. pp. 217–218.
The Mongol army administered the Yam. The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean.George Lane. Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.33 The routes were well organised, funded, maintained, and administered by the Mongols.George Lane. Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.35 This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time. As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement, the Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively, thereby ensuring political and economic stability.
Religious intolerance was one particular factor in the decline of the Pax Mongolica. In Vladimir-Suzdal', the Mongols (known as the Golden Horde), gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions. The Rus' Mongols converted to Islam and joined the Egyptian Mamluks for political reasons. At one point in the war, the Golden Horde even fought the Ilkhanate. The eastern part of the Golden Horde, White Horde, had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan. The decentralization occurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes. Eventually, the Persian people Mongol leader Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295. This contributed to the growing power of Nawruz; a Muslim Oirats general.
In China, descendants of Kublai Khan claimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming "too Chinese". This led to Yuan dynasty emperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture. Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under the Yuan emperors this was prohibited. As the Chinese culture was changing, intolerance became more common. Some Chinese thought that the Mongols were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual rituals on them. As a result many Chinese became xenophobia towards the Mongols. This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and form the Ming dynasty.Charles King. The Black Sea: A History. New York: OUP, 2004. Print. p.90
Demographically weakened, the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire, which began to revolt once the plague broke out.Janet Abu-Lughod. Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350. New York: OUP, 1989. Print. p. 183. These revolts disrupted the production of goods and flow of trade, which ended the Pax Mongolica.Laurence Bergreen. Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu. New York: Vintage, 2007. Print. p. 358.
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